Functions of Investment Banks

Functions of Investment Banks A Critical Discussion of the Major Functions  Performed by Investment Banks. Glossary (Jump to) Abstract   Chapter 1 –The Major Functions of Investment Banks   Summary Bills of Exchange   Corporate Finance Investment Management   Chapter 2 – Conclusions and Recommendations Bibliography Abstract Investment banks evolved as a result of lucrative merchant centers located in the north of Italy, Belgium as well as Holland from the 17th through 19th centuries. During that period Europe’s most influential merchant families moved to the United Kingdom as it was becoming the merchant and banking center of the region. Said list included the Barings, Rothchilds, and Warburg families and their interests (Kuhn, Robert. 1990)[1]. Developments in the United States resulted in that country becoming the center of financial activity in the late 20th century and saw the rise of JP Morgan, Goldman Sachs Merrill Lynch and Morgan Staley joining the ranks of the older investment powers (Carosso, 1970)[2]. Investment banking represents a broad spectrum of financial services that are dispensed by various specialists in conjunction with global investment banks. The services performed by these institutions includes (Lott, 2001)[3]: Underwriting, Distribution, The maintenance of markets in bonds, shares and securities issued by public entities and businesses, as well as Other services In contrast to the services provided by commercial banks, where the principle functions are to accept deposits and make loans to consumers and business on a short-term basis, investment banks engage in four important functions (Lott, 2001)[4]: Assist in the arrangement for the provision of funds to corporations and governments through underwriting as well as distributing new securities issues, Maintenance of markets for securities through the trading and execution of orders for secondary market transactions, Administer advice with respect to the purchase, sale and issuance of securities as well as other financial areas, The creation and management of varied investment vehicles. In addition to the foregoing, investment banks also perform a number of other important transactions and functions that are the subject of discussion in this paper. Chapter 1 –The Major Functions of Investment Banks 1.1 Summary Investment banking consists of a broad array of financial transactions. Some of the more familiar are (Lott, 2001)[5]: Underwriting, Syndication, Corporate Demand Capital Tenders and, Investment banking functions It is this last area that shall for the basis for examination. Bills of Exchange (Williamson, 1988)[6] These are independent instruments of debt that carry the signature of the customer (debtor). In summary, it is an order that directs a specific sum is to be paid to a specific individual. This instrument safeguards that a bill is accepted so that control is not lost of the item(s) involved. A ‘bill of exchange’ contains a stated date of payment that must be concluded on that date irrespective of any disputes concerning the item named. There are legal measures to prevent payment, termed ‘non-honoring’, which are subject to differing rules depending upon the country involved. Corporate Finance (Williamson, 1988)[7] This aspect of investment banking represents a specific finance area that deals with corporate financial decisions as well as the tools and analysis formulas and processes utilized to arrive at these decisions. It is divided into ‘short-term’ and ‘long-term’ techniques and decisions whereby the objective is to enhance corporate value through ensuring the ‘return on capital’ is more than the ‘cost of capital’. The equation rests on a conservative application of risks. Corporate finance is related to managerial finance, although the latter is larger in scope as it entails financial techniques that are possible in all business forms, whether they are corporate or non-corporate. IPO’s (efmoody, 2005)[8] Termed ‘Initial Public Offerings’, IPO’s represent the beginning of a publicly listed company and as such those investors whom are in position at this stage are poised to reap almost immediate gains if the stock rises on opening day. Similarly, these same investors stand to lose money if the opening price drops substantially. During the last few years the offering prices have tended to average out as being overpriced. This is borne out by the fact that the closing price, on average, the day of opening generated an annual return of just 2%. In terms of profitability, IPO’s generate large fees for the participating firms and represent the most profitable underwriting area. Fees generally average seven percent (7%). After the various splits between managing underwriters, brokerage firms, law firms and staff the profit hovers in the 34% through 40% range. This service is a cornerstone in aiding firms to float securities needed to expand or underwrite operations and as such represents one of the more important functions performed by investment banks. Rights Issues (Constantinides et al, 2002)[9] These are equity issues whereby shareholders of record have the right to purchase new shares that have a fixed exercise price. Mergers Acquisitions (Allen et al, 2000)[10] Investment banks act in the capacity as advisors in merger and acquisition deals. In working with both the target(s) of acquisition as well as the acquirer(s), investment banks provide their information expertise to help arrive at the ‘reservation price’. They also calculate the potential for gains and the risks in the transaction. And while investment banks have a vested interest in these deals, their pragmatism is an effective counter weight in maintaining a balance between undervaluing and overvaluing. Operating under banking regulations, investment banks represent a sort of intermediary that engenders public trust in the legitimacy of the transaction and is a part of a system that represent checks and balances over these types of transactions. Commercial banks might have potential conflicts of interest in these types of deals, so even while they have recently taken on this role, the majority of these transactions are still funneled through investment banks. Investment Management (Williamson, 1988)[11] As the term implies, investment management is also known as portfolio management as well as money management. It is a segment of investment analysis that examines the management of money relating to securities purchases as well as their sale. High Net Worth Individuals (Williamson, 1988)[12] Investment banking services for individuals of high net worth has been a long standing feature for an elite group whose banking investment needs exceed the capabilities of commercial banks and traditional specialists. The complex variable regarding the client’s return targets and relative degrees of risk along with long as well as short-term requirements represent specialized analysis. The resources of an investment bank are suited to meet the demanding requirements of these types of individuals as well as confidentiality. The extremely sophisticated variables comprising recommendations and placement in various instruments are crafted to fit an approved plan of action. Because high net worth individuals have access to their own channels of information, the demands of these types of clients in terms of sophistication requires the resources of a specialized institution. Corporations (Williamson, 1988)[13] The investment management of corporations entails handling a number of asset management areas. As is the case with high net worth individuals, it entails an extensive analysis of the goals and objectives desired as well as the cash availability requirements for specific periods of time. The preceding represents a valuable service as a result of the high level contacts and access to specialized information, opportunities and rates of return with moderate risk that investment banks can avail themselves of. Pension Funds (Williamson, 1988)[14] These funds represent extremely large sums that require placement in investment avenues that contain high degrees of safety as well as meeting return rates in established parameters. The important nature of these retirement funds requires an institution to pay close attention to risk avoidance as well as any potential changes and shifts in the market that could potentially affect the money in the Fund. Mutual Funds (Williamson, 1988)[15] In terms of mutual funds, there are literally hundreds of fund types to select from as a result of the classifications within this group. One particular type of fund which investment banks have an advantage over commercial banks is in hedge funds. These types of funds are unregulated and usually governed by unconventional strategies. Hedge funds trade in equities, money markets and bonds and offer yields as well as risks that exceed traditional long stock and bond methodologies. The secretive nature of these funds and the fact that they cater to institutions, corporations and high net worth individuals only is within the purview of investment banks. The mutual fund classifications contains a number of differing types, these are as follows: Objective Oriented Growth This type is structured so that it appreciates in value over time by investing principally in the common stock of companies that have shown or are showing a high growth potential. Income These are structured to generate dividends on a regular basis as the priority, with growth in value as the secondary selection criteria. Balanced These funds are a balance between growth and income funds thereby providing investors with dividend payouts while the fund appreciates in value as a result of the growth in the corporations selected. Market Oriented Specialized Through limiting holdings in one industry sector these ‘sector growth’ funds place their emphasis on one industry classification. The preceding entails risks if that classification or segments of that classification perform poorly. The reverse is also true if the sector experiences growth. Bond Funds These tend to be conservative investments, principally in debt securities, with the objective of providing income while preserving capital. The focus is similar to Income Funds, which is the payment of dividends. Municipal These types of bonds can be either short or long term and represent state and or local government issuances. Corporate These funds are composed of bond issuances by corporations and are guaranteed by companies to pay out both interest as well as principle. Zero-coupon These are bonds that are sold to investors at a discount and payout only on the maturity of the face value. Because the investor purchased these at a discount, the face value represents the gain. International These are composed of the debt securities of corporations and governments located in other nations. As some countries pay higher rates, the gains can be interesting depending upon currency fluctuations and conversion rates. Convertible Securities These funds invest in securities (debt) that permit conversion of their bonds into stock. The objective is the preservation of capital yielding growth and income. Money Market Money market funds invest in the short-term obligations, debt, of both governments and corporations and are structured by and large to permit smaller investors to participate for amounts starting at approximately $500, depending upon the fund. Without the fund, direct participation requires increments of $10,000. The pooled sums are then invested and managed. Multifunds This type of fund invests in the performance of other types of mutual funds. All Weather These are designed to weather all types of business and economic phases. Emerging Growth These types of mutual funds invest in companies with high growth potential. Precious Metals As the name indicates, these are funds that take positions in various types of valuable metals. Green A newer category within this classification, Green Funds select growth companies that have a record of being responsive on environmental issues and adhere to policies within that arena. Chapter 2 – Conclusions Investment banks serve a valuable purpose in financial and business markets through their handling of public offerings (IPO’s) and private placements. These functions help corporations with their liquidity requirements and the issuance of securities. As investment banks can sell stock in an IPO as well as secondary offering and private placements they represent a centralized location that is able to fill the needs of corporations, governmental entities and high net worth individuals. The decades, and in some cases centuries of participation in high level finance has resulted in connections within finance arenas whereby investment banks maintain ties and associations at participation levels that are beyond commercial banks. In addition, this sector represents the top of the talent pool in finance, thus the intelligence factor exceeds the personnel employed in commercial banking. Because investment banks are primarily paid on a success basis, their commitment to the deals is higher and so are the monetary rewards. Typically, the compensation in the industry ranges 50 through 60% of profits paid out to partners and employees. Investment banking executives, analysts, junior bankers and junior partners generally earn twice their commercial bank counterparts as their jobs entail making money for the firm as well as performance reviews for themselves. The high pressure and performance nature of these positions means only the brightest in their fields work in this sector, thus the reason for investment banks receiving the biggest and the best of deals in all of the service function areas mentioned above. The preceding emphasis on profits, earnings, fees and performance might seem like a focus on greed, however it is geared to bring out the best, through competition among firms, which benefits investors, the general public and the economies of the countries in which these firms operate. Bibliography Allen, Linda, Jagtiani, Julapa, Sauders, Anthony. The Role of Bank Advisors in Mergers and Acquisitions. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Supervision and Regulation. Carosso, Vincent. 1970. Investment Banking in America, A History. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. ISBN: 0674465741 Constantinides, George, Harris, Milton, Stulz, Rene. 2002. Investment Banking and Securities Issuance. Handbook of the Economics of Finance. ISBN: 0444513639 efmoody.com. 2005. IPO’s. http://www.efmoody.com/investments/ipos.html Kuhn, Robert. 1990. The Library of Investment Banking. Dow-Jones Irwin, Homewood, IL. ISBN: 1556232993 Lott, Tom. 2001. Vault Career Guide to Investment Banking. Vault. ISBN: 1581311338 Williamson, Peter. 1988. The Investment Banking Handbook. John Wiley Sons. ISBN: 0471815624 1 Footnotes [1] Kuhn, Robert. 1990. The Library of Investment Banking. Dow-Jones Irwin, Homewood, IL. ISBN: 1556232993 [2] Carosso, Vincent. 1970. Investment Banking in America, A History. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. ISBN: 0674465741 [3] Lott, Tom. 2001. Vault Career Guide to Investment Banking. Vault. ISBN: 1581311338 [4] Ibid [5] Lott, Tom. 2001. Vault Career Guide to Investment Banking. Vault. ISBN: 1581311338 [6] Williamson, Peter. 1988. The Investment Banking Handbook. John Wiley Sons. ISBN: 0471815624 [7] Ibid [8] efmoody.com. 2005. IPO’s. http://www.efmoody.com/investments/ipos.html [9] Constantinides, George, Harris, Milton, Stulz, Rene. 2002. Investment Banking and Securities Issuance. Handbook of the Economics of Finance. ISBN: 0444513639 [10] Allen, Linda, Jagtiani, Julapa, Sauders, Anthony. The Role of Bank Advisors in Mergers and Acquisitions. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Supervision and Regulation. [11] Williamson, Peter. 1988. The Investment Banking Handbook. John Wiley Sons. ISBN: 0471815624 [12] Ibid [13] Ibid [14] Williamson, Peter. 1988. The Investment Banking Handbook. John Wiley Sons. ISBN: 0471815624 [15] Ibid

Allegorizations of the Active and Contemplative Lives in Philo, Origen,

Allegorizations of the Active and Contemplative Lives in Philo, Origen, Augustine, and Gregory This paper examines the allegorical interpretations given to several Scriptural pairs as they relate to the idea of the active and contemplative lives in Philo, Origen, Augustine, and Gregory. As will be shown, Augustine combines elements found in the two previous writers to form his allegory of the two wives of Jacob as representative of the active and contemplative lives. In Philo, most of the essential elements of later Christian thought on the active and contemplative lives are already present. The superiority of the contemplative life is given at the beginning of his treatise on it: "I have discussed the Essenes, who persistently pursued the active life and excelled in all or, to put it more moderately, in most of its departments. I will now proceed at once in accordance with the sequence required by the subject to say what is needed about those who embraced the life of contemplation" (De Vita Cont. 1 [471]). The idea that the contemplative life follows upon the active is also present here, and is elaborated elsewhere: "... infants have one place and full grown men another. The one is named ascetic training and the other is called wisdom... For what life is better than a contemplative life, or more appropriate to a rational being?" (De Migr. Abr. 9 [443]). Both the active and contemplative lives are virtuous, but the contemplative is the more matur e and fuller expression of the life of wisdom; it should, however, only be practiced once the former has been used as a training ground. Philo allegorizes Leah and Rachel in several related ways in his works (cf. Sly, 163-74). At one point he identifies Rachel with bodily beauty, ... ... moves away. She loves to contemplate her lovely eyes; I love to use my hands to adorn myself: her joy is in reflection, mine in act." (Purgatorio xxvii, 101-08, [Musa trans.]) What has been called "the breadth of [Augustine's] vision and the lyrical exaltation of his language" (Mason, 45) has cast a long shadow indeed. Works Cited * Butler, D. C. Western Mysticism: The Teaching of Augustine, Gregory and Bernard on Contemplation and the Contemplative Life. 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. * Mason, M. E. Active Life and Contemplative Life: A Study of the Concepts from Plato to the Present. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1961. * Runia, D. T. Philo in Early Christian Literature: A Survey. Assen: Van Gorcum/Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993. * Sly, D. Philo's Perception of Women. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990.

Reprocudtive Health Bill

Chelsea Samatra, Kenneth Ragus Samatra,Ragus 1 Ms. Daligcon Period 4 A Battery That Makes Cents Abstract Many coins in the pile will make the most electricity. If there are more coins in the pile, then the more electricity it can produce, because the more electrons you have, the more electricity you will get. Batteries are expensive, but you can make one for exactly 24 cents! In this experiment, you will make your own voltaic pile using pennies and nickels. In the data, we will see if the number of pennies and nickels will affect the number of voltage and current.Problem How many coins in the pile will make the most electricity? Hypothesis If there are more coins, then the more electricity it can produce, because the more electrons you have the more electricity you will get. Samatra, Ragus 2 Background/Research You might think that batteries are a modern invention, but batteries were one of the first ways of making electricity. Alessandro Volta discovered the first electric battery i n 1800. He made a giant stack of alternating layers of zinc, blotting paper soaked in salt water, and silver. This early design for a battery became known as the  voltaic pile.How does a voltaic pile make electricity? The key to electricity is the movement of  electrons. In a voltaic pile, electrons move from one metal to the other through the saltwater solution. The saltwater solution is called an  electrolyte, and it contains  ions  in solution from the dissolved salts. An ion is a group of atoms that carries a positive or negative electric charge. The ions react with the metals, causing an  electrochemical reaction, a special kind of chemical reaction that makes electrons. The two types of metals in a voltaic pile are called  electrodes.Since there are two kinds of metals, one metal reacts more strongly than the other, which leaves an electrical potential difference, also called voltage, between the two types of metals. One metal becomes positively charged, the posi tive electrode and the other becomes negatively charged, the negative electrode. This causes electrons to move, creating an electrical  current  which is measured in amperes, and then you have electricity! In addition, the formula for voltage is current times resistance or V = I*R, so the formula for current will be voltage divided by resistance or I = V/R.Samatra, Ragus 3 Vocabulary Words: * Electrochemical Reaction – branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical action of electricity and the production of electricity by chemical reactions * Electron – Also called negatron, an elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of matter * Voltaic Pile – battery consisting of voltaic cells arranged in series; the earliest electric battery devised by Volta. * Electrolyte – a liquid or gel that contains ions and can be decomposed by electrolysis. Materials The materials and equipments that are needed for the experiment are: * Pennies (4) Nickels ( 4) * Mild dish soap * Vinegar (any kind, 1/4 C. ) * Salt (1 Tbsp. ) * Small bow * Small plate (ceramic, plastic, or Styrofoam not paper or metal) * Digital multimeter (any kind that reads mA and mV) Samatra, Ragus 4 * Paper towels (2) * Scissors The procedures for the experiment are: 1. In a small bowl, mix together 1/4 C. of vinegar (electrolyte) and 1 Tbsp. of salt (ions). 2. Using scissors, cut up a paper towel into small squares. 3. Place the small squares to soak in the bowl of salt-vinegar solution, and set them aside. 4.Gather some pennies and nickels, wash with a mild detergent (like dish soap), and dry. 5. Start building your stack on a dry paper towel on your plate. Put down a penny first, then place a square of vinegar-soaked paper towel on top, and then add a nickel. Keep repeating the layers until you have a stack of four coins (alternating pennies, wet paper towel pieces, and nickels), making sure you end with a nickel on top. 6. Attach the leads of the multimeter to t he two ends of the battery by touching one lead to the penny on the bottom and the other to the nickel on the top.Measure the voltage produced by your battery (in millivolts, mV). You can also measure the current produced (in milliamps, mA). Samatra, Ragus 5 7. Repeat the experiment, each time building a battery with a different number of coins. One important rule is to always start with a penny and end in a nickel, so the number of layers of pennies and nickels will always match. The record of the data table: Number of Pennies| Number of Nickels| Voltage (mV)| Current (mA)| 4| 4| 6. 8| 1. 7| 5| 5| 9. 5| 1. 9| 6| 6| 12. 6| 2. 1|The data above shows that number of coins in the pile had affected the amount of electricity produced. The viewer can obviously tell that, why? Because the data shows that the more pennies and nickels you have in yorur pile, the more amount of electricity you can produced. The amount of electricity produced on 4 pennies and nickels is 6. 8, why because the re sistance was 4 and then the current was 1. 7 and the formula for voltage is V=I*R . The amount of voltage in 5 pennies and nickels is 9. 5 and its current was 1. 9. The amount of voltage in 6 pennies and nickels is 12. and its current was 2. 1. Samatra, Ragus 6 Sample Models This image shows the structure of a voltaic pile, which is the first design of a battery that's used to make electricity. It was discovered by Alessandro Volta in 1800. In this experiment, you will make your own version of the voltaic pile using two different types of coins and a salt-vinegar solution. How does a voltaic pile made of money work? Since each coin is made up of a different metal, one metal reacts more strongly than the other, which leaves an electrical potential difference (voltage) between the two types of metals.The question is, how will different numbers of coins affect the amount of electricity produced? By making piles with different numbers of coins and measuring the voltage and current produ ced, you can test the effect of changing the number of coins in the piles. Samatra, Ragus 7 Analysis Amount of the Voltage (Pennies ; Nickels) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 (4 pennies ; nickels) (5 pennies ; nickels) (6 pennies and nickels) The graphs shows that the number of pennies and nickels whether it increase or decrease, it will affect the amount of the voltage (mV).The graph above specifically shows and tell us that increasing the number of nickels and pennies will increase the amount of voltage. In a very short way, the more pennies and nickels the more voltage and current. The formula for voltage was V = I * R, so the formula for current was I = V/R and then the formula for resistance was R = V/I. Samatra, Ragus 8 Conclusion In conclusion, many coins in the pile will make the most electricity, i proved that my hypothesis was right the more coins in the pile, then the more electricity it can produce, because the more electrons you have, the more electricity you will get.The data that I made was connected to the research section because the research section, it tells the reader that can the number of pennies and nickels will affect the amount of the voltage? So my data shows that the number of the pennies and nickels did really affect the amount of the voltage. I will always remember that the more electrons/coins in the pile, the more electricity/voltage it can produced.

Establishing a Project Management Office (PMO)

Establishing a Project Management Office (PMO) Project Management Office (PMO) â€Å"A Project Management Office (PMO) is described as a centralized, coordinating body within an organization or a project that provides a focal point for the field of project management† (Young, 2009). As such, its key function is to define and address issues that relate to management of projects in order to facilitate success in organizational results for projects.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Establishing a Project Management Office (PMO) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The establishment of a Project Management Office has several advantages to an organization. As the Project Management Consultant in a company considering establishing a PMO, I would put several aspects into consideration. However, a PMO has more advantages in running of a company than any potential disadvantages. As the PM Consultant for the company, I wish to mention why a PMO should be adopted. As suc h, the main benefits of adopting a PMO in a company are as described in the following paragraphs. Reasons for Adopting the PMO Many companies across the continent have been struggling to deliver projects within budget, but with minimum success. However, several management challenges faced by these companies have resulted in unsuccessful attempts to meet their targets. Project success rates have been reported to decrease in the recent years due to failure in management. â€Å"As such, there has been a dramatic increase in late and over-budget projects in 2010, as compared to 2009† (Krigsman, 2011). Table 1.0 shows the summary for projects statistics for the years 2009 and 2010. Risk Factor 2009 Average 2010 Average Percentage of projects taking longer than expected. 35.5 percent 61.1 percent Percentage of projects with costs exceeding allocated budget. 51.4 percent 74.1 percent Percentage benefits realization from delivered projects. 67.0 percent 48.0 percent Table 1.0: Projects Statistics for the year 2009 and 2010 Source: ZDNet (2011).Advertising Looking for report on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, latest survey from the PM Solutions Research has indicated that PMO has a significant contribution to project success. The detailed results of PMO contribution are as given below (PM Solutions Research, 2010): 31 percent reduction in failed project. 30 percent of projects delivered under budget. 21 percent improvement in productivity. 19 percent of projects delivered ahead of schedule. 17 percent saving per project has been confirmed. A 13 percent increase in resource capacity. As a result, it is mandatory to implement a PMO in order to experience improved project success rates. However, there are several guidelines to be followed to ensure the PMO benefits are accompanied with high-success rates. Some of the benefits of establishing a PMO in the company are described below (Young, 2009). Focus on improvement in project management competency. Knowledge and project management skills are improved through training. There are increased levels of uniformity and consistency in project delivery. There is a reduction in project overruns, hence, improved delivery speeds. Customer satisfaction as a result of meeting product requirements. There is a common point for the project management service. Archiving project operational and performance data. Steps in Building a Successful Project Management Office (PMO) Since it is like any other organizational change project, implementation of the Project Management Office will be approached in the same manner (Hill, 2008). There are several steps that need to be followed so that success can be guaranteed. As the PM Consultant for the company, I have identified the following key steps to use for the PMO implementation. Establishment Role, Scope and Office The initial set up of the PMO will involve the establishment of the organizational role and scope (power) of the office (Hill, 2008). During the set up process, there are several factors to consider in defining the office and are referred to as PMO evolves. In collaboration with the company’s executives, these factors can be identified and incorporated as it may be rendered necessary. The following are the most urgent and influential factors that are a must to be considered in establishing a PMO. First of all, it will be necessary to consider the reporting arrangements because it has a significant influence on the determination of the roles and power of the PMO. In this situation, an independent PMO that reports directly to the executive group is preferred. This will allow for a greater degree of functionality of the PMO, thus, resulting in better management of project related issues (Steph, 2007). As such, there is no restriction of the PMO’s operation within certain departments alone, but free a nd independent operations in all departments.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Establishing a Project Management Office (PMO) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Secondly, the scope of projects that the PMO will assume responsibility has to be identified. Depending on the needs and size of organization, the PMO can assume responsibilities for all the projects or limited to certain projects such as IT. During the first implementation process, it is essential that the PMO is restricted within the organization. This will enable the company evaluate its performance and define new ways of improving future ventures. Finally, the PMO can be established as a permanent or temporary office depending on the company’s needs. Temporary PMO offices can be set up for functions such as reflecting on a year’s initiatives. On the other hand, a permanent office will allow for an ongoing assessment of an organization’ s projects. Depending on the cost implications, companies usually prefer permanent offices because they are more economical in the long run. Human Resource Functions The second stage of setting up the PMO involves taking care of human resource issues such as selection and recruitment, training and certification, and providing resources to projects, among others. These functions are available in both cases where the PMO is independent or directly responsible for projects. The following human resource factors are the most essential in setting up project management offices. Selection and recruitment of project staff is a responsibility that the PMO can assume when established. This is a necessary step where pertinent professionals such as project managers can be selected and assigned to projects that have been identified (Hill, 2008). It ensures that the project management culture of the organization is in accordance with the company’s scope. As such, there is a continuous impro vement in the organization’s professional project management staff; thus, improved productivity. The PMO can also take responsibility in administering training the company’s staff. The body can undertake these functions by itself or through other external bodies. The PMO sets up the minimum standards required for selection and promotions to higher project management posts.Advertising Looking for report on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This step ensures that recruited members are fit and competent to undertake the project responsibilities set before them (Steph, 2007). As a result, the project managerial skills can be developed and promoted for the organization’s success. Another important role that PMO’s provides is coordinating the supply of resources to the organization’s projects. This function may involve posting of project managers to projects or even the entire project staff. However, the growth and expansion of an organization is the factor that will determine the actions to be undertaken. For instance, growth will result in the need to manage projects resources systematically. As such, it may be essential for the PMO to assume the works for allocating resources to projects. Setting up Project Management Standards The third step undertaken by the PMO involves the establishment of project management standards. This will provide a backing for which the PMO will use to manage how the comp any responds to its projects (Hill, 2008). This helps to define the organizational layout for projects and can provide either direct or indirect influence on the projects. The factors handled during this stage are described in the following paragraphs. The initial and most significant step is to set up the Project Management Methodologies. These may include defining the project life cycle or project execution standards. The former involves defining the sequencing of project activities such as design, building, testing and hand-over. However, the latter involves determining the parameters for items such as documentation, reporting and issue management. This is a key role in determining how an organization will be responding to its projects needs. Therefore, the role is usually assigned to the PMO to ensure a successful project execution is realized. Another role that is closely associated with setting up methodologies includes the provision of templates. Provision of templates for pr oject activities has a direct influence on how projects are run. There are several forms of templates that can be used such as status reporting, risk assessment and budgeting among many others. This is an extremely helpful step for organizations that are new to project management because it allows them to establish standard processes much faster than expected. Also, it may be necessary for an organization to provide project management tools to assist in the effective management of more complex projects. These tools usually have both direct and indirect impact on the management of organization’s projects. Project management tools may include templates (mentioned above), project management software, and other customized tools (Steph, 2007). Project Execution Functions Usually, project execution functions are closely linked to the PMO’s resource ownership relationship. As such, a PMO that owns its resources (project managers or project resource group) has more responsibil ities in the management and execution of the projects. The following functions in project executions are handled by the Project Management Office in an organization (Steph, 2007). A comprehensive risk management function can be assigned to the Project Management Office depending on the need at hand. The functions may vary from the initial setting up of standards and procedures for risk management processes to facilitation of project risk management. Risk and issue management functions are assigned to PMO’s to ensure there is maximum success among handled projects. Impact and change management functions are well managed by the PMO. As such, the PMO assumes all the responsibilities for measuring project impacts on shareholders, customers, employees and other associates. The importance of PMO’s functions on impact assessment increases as an organization’s size and project portfolio increases. This helps in the determination of better ways to handle future projects by avoiding possible future problems on similar projects. Communication is an extremely useful tool required to shape the current and future direction of projects. As such, the PMO should be well exposed to several projects to develop effective ways of managing communication within projects and other areas of a company. Some of the techniques used to improve communication within projects include the use of direct methods like presentations and newsletters; or the use of indirect methods such as provision of Intranet sites and directories. Large corporations with several projects are suitable for this communication that is aided by PMO’s. Business Strategy Responsibilities Several organizations that are constantly improving their technologies and those with large expenditures on their projects require a PMO with increased roles. This is necessary to ensure that such organizations do not make unnecessary losses due to technology lags or overboard project expenditure. In such si tuations, the PMO will assume a crucial role in making strategies for such organizations. The following strategic intents can be undertaken by such organizations. One strategic move by a PMO can involve the gathering of initiative proposals. As mentioned earlier, this may include the submission of guidelines and templates that can be used as aids by people submitting proposals. Another strategic function may involve the evaluation of projects as a central area for the planning of organization’s projects. This would include proposal evaluations basing on different criteria. Some of the fundamental criteria that are used include resource impacts, costs, risk assessments, schedules, etc. The PMO may also use project prioritization to categorize the most critical projects. As such, this could be used for identifying which projects to start working on and with what speeds in order to meet their deadlines. Furthermore, project prioritization can be used to identify projects with th e most financial benefits, easier resources availability, and those with minimal risk assessment (Steph, 2007). When accompanied with project planning and scheduling, the PMO delivers quality projects within the allocated time frame. Associated to project prioritization and scheduling (as mentioned above) is the PMO’s role in project funding and approval. In this strategic move, the PMO ensures that the necessary funding is made available to projects at the most appropriate time so as to allow for maximum productivity. Therefore, all budgets directly relating to projects are handled by the PMO of the organization in order to maintain smooth operations. Reviewing the PMO After the establishment of all the five stages described above, the Project Management Office is completed and ready to start offering its services. However, the PMO will need to be constantly reviewed, and modifications made as it serves the organization (Hill, 2008). Changes resulting from the organizationâ €™s growth lead to subsequent changes in the roles and scope of the PMO. Therefore, it is mandatory that the PMO staff work together with the organization’s executive in order to review the PMO’s scope and performance. As a result, the PMO will remain functional and relevant to the changing business needs of the organization. Conclusion In this paper, the benefits and essential steps undertaken in setting up a PMO were discussed. The determining factors may vary depending on the size, type, and project portfolio of the organization. The application of those factors that were discussed will enable an organization to establish methods that will result in maximum productivity. Therefore, it is recommended that organizations looking for project success establish a PMO to manage its internal and external projects. References Hill, Gerard (2008) The Complete Project Management Office Handbook (2nd Edition). ESI International. Krigsman, Michael (2011) 2011 ERP Survey: New IT Failure Research and Statistics.  Web. ZDNet. PM Solutions (2010) The State of the PMO 2010: A PM Solutions Research Report.  Web. PM Solutions. Steph, Brown (2007) How to Design an Effective Project Management Office. Web. Management E-articles. Young, Michael (2009) Key Steps to Implement a Project Management Office. Web. Project Smart.

Coronary artery disease essays

Coronary artery disease essays Sherlock Holmes uses a variety of different methods when solving the mystery in A Study in Scarlet. The methods include; working backwards, deduction, and false argument by elimination. I will be describing these in this order because I theorize that in the end Holmes is really making educated guesses or assumptions. By addressing these methods in the descending order that follows, I hope to show that anyone could make these assumptions but wind up with a very different outcome depending on how the variables are eliminated. WORKING BACKWARDS is the method whereby a person starts with an end result or event and works back through a logical set of reasoning to arrive at certain conclusions. This is often used at crime scenes to build a case. Usually the police use fingerprints, DNA samples, and computer modeling to arrive at their conclusions which are based on scientific fact. This leaves little chance for error or false assumptions. When Sherlock Holmes was solving the mystery he used very loose associations that he then considered facts. An example was when he sniffed the dead mans lips. Sherlock detected a slightly sour smell which led him to the conclusion that the man had had poison forced upon him. When in fact there are numerous substances and/or conditioning that could produce a sour smell other than poison. With todays forensics saliva would have been gathered and tested before such a conclusion would be made. DEDUCTION is defined as reaching a conclusion by reasoning. This is probably the strongest method that Sherlock Holmes utilizes when solving the case. Deducing a conclusion is only as strong as the reasoning behind it. In many cases Sherlock Holmes established some fairly weak causal links. Sometimes he would state that a set of observations created a certain outcome. This could certainly of happened and could very well be the cause, but Holmes never eliminated any number of possible ...

Organizational Structure Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Organizational Structure Paper - Essay Example The organization under observance in this essay is Toyota. Toyota uses a matrix structure which is, arguably, an amalgamation of two models; traditional design and horizontal structure. To understand the matrix structure, let us first look into the traditional model and the horizontal model. This ways, the essay will cover multiple styles of organizational structure. Traditional model, also called functional design, is the conventional way of organizational structure. It adopts a centralized manner of task allocation and responsibility-sharing. Generally, traditional model uses a bureaucratic style, and lines of authority are well-defined (Organizational Structure, n.d.). When it comes to considering the customers, the traditional model fails to acknowledge customer feedback and opinions since the structure is strictly function-oriented. On the other hand, a horizontal structure has a flat layout. Also called a flat structure, functions in horizontal structure are spread out and ther e is less authoritative manner to it, while giving room to a greater span of control to employees. Unlike the traditional model, a decentralized approach is employed in a flat structure, whereby, there is increased communication and teamwork. There is room for customer feedback due to the emphasis on high levels of communication. In the last two decades, companies have shown a trend towards shifting to a horizontal structure since it encourages communication and feedback. The traditional model is rather a primitive style of organizational chart; companies in the 20th century were more bent towards the functional approach. However, towards the end of the century, the new-age style of designing the organizational chart was shifting towards being a flatter structure. Subsequently, modern organizations adopted an amalgamation of the primitive models, hence, the matrix model, which is partially centralized and partially decentralized in nature. The illustration below shows how a matrix-s tructured organizational chart would look like. At Toyota, the employees find themselves in an inter-connected group of personnel who know their functions while keeping communication at an optimum level. ‘The Toyota organization structure is designed to support teamwork. Toyota followed the power of coordinated team structures’ (Toyota, 2011). The chart below, clearly, shows how the functions are linked with each other, following a top-down design along with a flat structure. One common advantage of using a matrix-structure is that it allows for expertise and special staff to be efficiently employed, rather than undesired duplication of functions and hence, wastage of expertise. One of the ways that influence the organizational structure is to consider the vital organizational functions. The functions include human resource, finance, marketing, sales etc. During the design phase of the flow chart, the company must analyze the company goals and vision because that will p rovide the appropriate framework for the organization. The functions at Toyota include marketing, finance, operations, R & D etc. to save time, and allow processes to be completed in quick fashion, there needs to be fast communication along with a stringent quality control framework. The higher authority at Toyota needs to be involved in the functions while also allowing for middle managers to

Business - Organizational Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business - Organizational Communication - Essay Example Organizational communication takes place horizontally, downward and upward. Downward communication takes place from executive and managerial levels to the other staff through formal channels like organizational charts, policy manuals and rules and regulations. Upward communication takes place from the members of staff to the managers, and mainly, inform of a request or a complaint. Horizontal communication flows among colleagues, especially in a meeting, where they share information, discuss issues of common interest and resolve problems. The paragraphs below discuss the importance of organizational change and issues involved by managers in creating effective organizational communication. Organizational communication is highly essential because it improves the relationship between employees and managers in an organization. This is because; it becomes extremely hard for employees to perform their work effectively without proper communication from the manager. The manager should use th e correct channels of communication, and know what he expects from the communication channel used. Indeed, most management issues arise in organizations due to ineffective communication. Proper communication system minimizes misunderstanding and misrepresentation (Smith & Turner, 1995). Organizational communication is a key tool for motivation among the employees since it improves the employees’ morale. Lack of communication or inappropriate communication in every organization causes conflicts between the employees and managers. Inappropriate communication issue is one of the major causes of conflict in the work places and eventually leads to low morale for the employees. Therefore, managers should state clearly to employees on what should be done, how perfectly it should be done, and what can be done to improve the performance. The manager can do this by clarifying to the employees the relationship between personal and company’s objectives, and incorporate the interes t of the two. Effective communication within an organization leads to productivity increase. Proper communication enhances good human relation in every company because it encourages suggestions and ideas from workers and employees. Importantly, the organization is encouraged to implement the suggestions, and this increases production at a remarkably low cost. Organizational communication enables employees to submit their comments, work reports, suggestions and grievances to the management. Speedy and effective communication is highly essential because procedures and policies should be clear to avoid confusion, delays and misunderstandings, and; therefore, harmony is established in all departments, and among all people. Written communication is better in an organization than oral communication. Communication in written form should be clear and concise to avoid misinterpretation. Written communication can be used for future reference because it provides a permanent record and gives a chance to employees on writing down their suggestions and comments. Organizational communication is essential since it allows rationalization. Simply, the management clarifies and explains instructions in a way that employees can comprehend, using downward communication. On the other hand, upward communication in an organization enables workers to air their views to the management. If an employee identifies a problem in motivation, for instance, he or she may use upward